The Rise of Islam
The Arabian Peninsula is a crossroads of three continents—Africa, Europe, and Asia. At its longest and widest points, the peninsula is about 1,200 miles from north to south and 1,300 miles from east to west. Only a tiny strip of fertile land in south Arabia and Oman and a few oases can support agriculture. The remainder of the land is desert, which in the past was inhabited by nomadic Arab herders.
Desert and Town Life
On this desert, the Arab nomads, called Bedouins (BEHD•oo•ihnz), were organized into tribes and groups called clans. These clans provided security and support for a life made difficult by the extreme conditions of the desert. The Bedouin ideals of courage and loyalty to family, along with their warrior skills, would become part of the Islamic way of life.
The areas with more fertile soil and the larger oases had enough water to support farming communities. By the early 600s, many Arabs had chosen to settle in an oasis or in a market town. Larger towns near the western coast of Arabia became market towns for local, regional, and long-distance trade goods
On this desert, the Arab nomads, called Bedouins (BEHD•oo•ihnz), were organized into tribes and groups called clans. These clans provided security and support for a life made difficult by the extreme conditions of the desert. The Bedouin ideals of courage and loyalty to family, along with their warrior skills, would become part of the Islamic way of life.
The areas with more fertile soil and the larger oases had enough water to support farming communities. By the early 600s, many Arabs had chosen to settle in an oasis or in a market town. Larger towns near the western coast of Arabia became market towns for local, regional, and long-distance trade goods
Crossroads of Trade and Ideas
By the early 600s, trade routes connected Arabia to the major ocean and land trade routes, as you can see on the map on the next page. Trade routes through Arabia ran from the extreme south of the peninsula to the Byzantine and Sassanid (Persian) empires to the north. Merchants from these two empires moved along the caravan routes, trading for goods from the Silk Roads of the east. They transported spices and incense from Yemen and other products to the west. They also carried information and ideas from the world outside Arabia. |
Mecca
During certain holy months, caravans stopped in Mecca, a city in western Arabia. They brought religious pilgrims who came to worship at an ancient shrine in the city called the Ka’aba (KAH•buh). The Arabs associated this house of worship with Abraham, a Hebrew prophet and a believer in one God. Over the years, they had introduced the worship of many gods and spirits to the place. The Ka’aba contained over 360 idols brought by many tribes.
The concept of belief in one God, called Allah (AL•luh) in Arabic, was known on the Arabian Peninsula. Many Christians and Jews lived there and practiced monotheism. Into this mixed religious environment of Mecca, around A.D. 570, Muhammad was born.
During certain holy months, caravans stopped in Mecca, a city in western Arabia. They brought religious pilgrims who came to worship at an ancient shrine in the city called the Ka’aba (KAH•buh). The Arabs associated this house of worship with Abraham, a Hebrew prophet and a believer in one God. Over the years, they had introduced the worship of many gods and spirits to the place. The Ka’aba contained over 360 idols brought by many tribes.
The concept of belief in one God, called Allah (AL•luh) in Arabic, was known on the Arabian Peninsula. Many Christians and Jews lived there and practiced monotheism. Into this mixed religious environment of Mecca, around A.D. 570, Muhammad was born.
The Prophet Muhammad
Muhammad (mu•HAM•id) was born into the clan of a powerful Meccan family. Orphaned at the age of six, Muhammad was raised by his grandfather and uncle. He received little schooling and began working in the caravan trade as a very young man. At the age of 25, Muhammad became a trader and business manager for Khadijah (kah•DEE•juh), a wealthy businesswoman of about 40. Later, Muhammad and Khadijah married. Theirs was both a good marriage and a good business partnership.
Revelations Muhammad took great interest in religion and often spent time alone in prayer and meditation. At about the age of 40, Muhammad’s life was changed overnight when a voice called to him while he meditated in a cave outside Mecca. According to Muslim belief, the voice was that of the angel Gabriel, who told Muhammad that he was a messenger of Allah. “What shall I proclaim?” asked Muhammad. The voice answered:
|
Proclaim! In the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, who created man out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And thy Lord is most bountiful. He who taught (the use of) the pen taught man that which he knew not.
- Qur'an, sura 96: 1-5 |
After much soul-searching, Muhammad came to believe that the Lord who spoke to him through Gabriel was Allah. Muhammad became convinced that he was the last of the prophets. He began to teach that Allah was the one and only God and that all other gods must be abandoned. People who agreed to this basic principle of Islam were called Muslims. In Arabic, Islam (ihs•LAHM) means “submission to the will of Allah.” Muslim (MOOZ•lim) means “one who has submitted.” Muhammad’s wife, Khadijah, and several close friends and relatives were his first followers.
|
By 613, Muhammad had begun to preach publicly in Mecca, but he met with some hostility. Many Meccans believed his revolutionary ideas would lead to neglect of the traditional Arab gods. They feared that Mecca would lose its position as a pilgrimage center if people accepted Muhammad’s monotheistic beliefs.
The Hijrah
After some of his followers had been attacked, Muhammad decided to leave Mecca in 622. Following a small band of supporters he sent ahead, Muhammad moved to the town of Yathrib, over 200 miles to the north of Mecca. This migration became known as the Hijrah (hih•JEE•ruh). The Hijrah to Yathrib marked a turning point for Muhammad. He attracted many devoted followers. Later, Yathrib was renamed Medina
After some of his followers had been attacked, Muhammad decided to leave Mecca in 622. Following a small band of supporters he sent ahead, Muhammad moved to the town of Yathrib, over 200 miles to the north of Mecca. This migration became known as the Hijrah (hih•JEE•ruh). The Hijrah to Yathrib marked a turning point for Muhammad. He attracted many devoted followers. Later, Yathrib was renamed Medina
In Medina, Muhammad displayed impressive leadership skills. He fashioned an agreement that joined his own people with the Arabs and Jews of Medina as a single community. These groups accepted Muhammad as a political leader. As a religious leader, he drew many more converts who found his message appealing. Finally, Muhammad also became a military leader in the growing hostilities between Mecca and Medina.
Returning to Mecca In 630, the Prophet and 10,000 of his followers marched to the outskirts of Mecca. Facing sure defeat, Mecca’s leaders surrendered. The Prophet entered the city in triumph. He destroyed the idols in the Ka’aba and had the call to prayer made from its roof.
Most Meccans pledged their loyalty to Muhammad, and many converted to Islam. By doing so, they joined the umma, or Muslim religious community. Muhammad died two years later, at about the age of 62. However, he had taken great strides toward unifying the entire Arabian Peninsula under Islam. |
Beliefs and Practices of Islam
The main teaching of Islam is that there is only one God, Allah. All other beliefs and practices follow from this teaching. Islam teaches that there is good and evil, and that each individual is responsible for the actions of his or her life.
The Five Pillars
To be a Muslim, all believers have to carry out five duties. These duties are known as the Five Pillars of Islam.
• Faith To become a Muslim, a person has to testify to the following statement of faith: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.” This simple statement is heard again and again in Islamic rituals and in Muslim daily life.
• Prayer Five times a day, Muslims face toward Mecca to pray. They may assemble at a mosque (mahsk), an Islamic house of worship, or wherever they find themselves.
• Alms Muhammad taught that all Muslims have a responsibility to support the less fortunate. Muslims meet that social responsibility by giving alms, or money for the poor, through a special religious tax.
• Fasting During the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, Muslims fast between dawn and sunset. A simple meal is eaten at the end of the day. Fasting serves to remind Muslims that their spiritual needs are greater than their physical needs.
• Pilgrimage All Muslims who are physically and financially able perform the hajj (haj), or pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once. Pilgrims wear identical garments so that all stand as equals before Allah.
To be a Muslim, all believers have to carry out five duties. These duties are known as the Five Pillars of Islam.
• Faith To become a Muslim, a person has to testify to the following statement of faith: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.” This simple statement is heard again and again in Islamic rituals and in Muslim daily life.
• Prayer Five times a day, Muslims face toward Mecca to pray. They may assemble at a mosque (mahsk), an Islamic house of worship, or wherever they find themselves.
• Alms Muhammad taught that all Muslims have a responsibility to support the less fortunate. Muslims meet that social responsibility by giving alms, or money for the poor, through a special religious tax.
• Fasting During the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, Muslims fast between dawn and sunset. A simple meal is eaten at the end of the day. Fasting serves to remind Muslims that their spiritual needs are greater than their physical needs.
• Pilgrimage All Muslims who are physically and financially able perform the hajj (haj), or pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once. Pilgrims wear identical garments so that all stand as equals before Allah.
A Way of Life
Carrying out the Five Pillars of Islam ensures that Muslims live their religion while serving in their community. Along with the Five Pillars, there are other customs, morals, and laws for Islamic society that affect Muslims’ daily lives. Believers are forbidden to eat pork or to drink intoxicating beverages. Friday afternoons are set aside for communal worship. Unlike many other religions, Islam has no priests or central religious authority. Every Muslim is expected to worship Allah directly. Islam does, however, have a scholar class called the ulama. The ulama includes religious teachers who apply the words and deeds of Muhammad to everyday life.
Carrying out the Five Pillars of Islam ensures that Muslims live their religion while serving in their community. Along with the Five Pillars, there are other customs, morals, and laws for Islamic society that affect Muslims’ daily lives. Believers are forbidden to eat pork or to drink intoxicating beverages. Friday afternoons are set aside for communal worship. Unlike many other religions, Islam has no priests or central religious authority. Every Muslim is expected to worship Allah directly. Islam does, however, have a scholar class called the ulama. The ulama includes religious teachers who apply the words and deeds of Muhammad to everyday life.
Sources of Authority
The original source of authority for Muslims is Allah. According to Islamic belief, Allah expressed his will through the angel Gabriel, who revealed it to Muhammad. While Muhammad lived, his followers memorized and recited the revelations he received from Gabriel. Soon after the Prophet’s death, it was suggested that the revelations be collected in a book. This book is the Qur’an (kuh•RAN), the holy book of the Muslims.
The original source of authority for Muslims is Allah. According to Islamic belief, Allah expressed his will through the angel Gabriel, who revealed it to Muhammad. While Muhammad lived, his followers memorized and recited the revelations he received from Gabriel. Soon after the Prophet’s death, it was suggested that the revelations be collected in a book. This book is the Qur’an (kuh•RAN), the holy book of the Muslims.
The Qur’an is written in Arabic, and Muslims consider only the Arabic version to be the true word of Allah. Only Arabic can be used in worship. Wherever Muslims carried the Qur’an, Arabic became the language of worshipers and scholars. Thus, the Arabic language helped unite conquered peoples as Muslim control expanded.
|
Muslims believe that Muhammad’s mission as a prophet was to receive the Qur’an and to demonstrate how to apply it in life. To them, the Sunna (SOON•uh), or Muhammad’s example, is the best model for proper living. The guidance of the Qur’an and Sunna was assembled in a body of law known as shari’a (shah•REE•ah). This system of law regulates the family life, moral conduct, and business and community life of Muslims.
Links to Judaism and Christianity
To Muslims, Allah is the same God that is worshiped in Christianity and Judaism. However, Muslims view Jesus as a prophet, not as the Son of God. They regard the Qur’an as the word of Allah as revealed to Muhammad, in the same way that Jews and Christians believe the Torah and the Gospels were revealed to Moses and the New Testament writers. Muslims believe that the Qur’an perfects the earlier revelations. To them, it is the final book, and Muhammad was the final prophet. All three religions believe in heaven and hell and a day of judgment. The Muslims trace their ancestry to Abraham, as do the Jews and Christians.
Muslims refer to Christians and Jews as “people of the book” because each religion has a holy book with teachings similar to those of the Qur’an. Shari’a law requires Muslim leaders to extend religious tolerance to Christians and Jews. A huge Muslim empire grew to include people of many different cultures and religions.
To Muslims, Allah is the same God that is worshiped in Christianity and Judaism. However, Muslims view Jesus as a prophet, not as the Son of God. They regard the Qur’an as the word of Allah as revealed to Muhammad, in the same way that Jews and Christians believe the Torah and the Gospels were revealed to Moses and the New Testament writers. Muslims believe that the Qur’an perfects the earlier revelations. To them, it is the final book, and Muhammad was the final prophet. All three religions believe in heaven and hell and a day of judgment. The Muslims trace their ancestry to Abraham, as do the Jews and Christians.
Muslims refer to Christians and Jews as “people of the book” because each religion has a holy book with teachings similar to those of the Qur’an. Shari’a law requires Muslim leaders to extend religious tolerance to Christians and Jews. A huge Muslim empire grew to include people of many different cultures and religions.
Arab Empires
After the death of Muhammad, a caliph became the secular and spiritual leader of the Islamic community. As the empire grew, caliphs became more like kings or emperors, as described by this thirteenth-century Chinese traveler:
"The king wears a turban of silk brocade and foreign cotton stuff. On each new moon and full moon he puts on an eight-sided flat-topped headdress of pure gold, set with the most precious jewels in the world. His robe is of silk brocade and is bound around him with a jade girdle. On his feet he wears golden shoes... the king's throne is set with pearls and precious stones, and the steps of the throne are covered with pure gold. The various vessels and utensils around the throne are of gold or silver, and precious pearls are knotted in the screen behind it. In great court ceremonies the king sits behind this screen."
The jewels and finery of the Arab rulers were indications of the strength and power of the growing Arab Empire.
"The king wears a turban of silk brocade and foreign cotton stuff. On each new moon and full moon he puts on an eight-sided flat-topped headdress of pure gold, set with the most precious jewels in the world. His robe is of silk brocade and is bound around him with a jade girdle. On his feet he wears golden shoes... the king's throne is set with pearls and precious stones, and the steps of the throne are covered with pure gold. The various vessels and utensils around the throne are of gold or silver, and precious pearls are knotted in the screen behind it. In great court ceremonies the king sits behind this screen."
The jewels and finery of the Arab rulers were indications of the strength and power of the growing Arab Empire.
Creation of an Arab Empire
Muhammad had been accepted as both the political and religious leader of the Islamic community. The death of Muhammad left his followers with a problem: Muhammad had never named a successor. Although he had several daughters, he had left no son. In a male-oriented society, who would lead the community of the faithful?
Muhammad had been accepted as both the political and religious leader of the Islamic community. The death of Muhammad left his followers with a problem: Muhammad had never named a successor. Although he had several daughters, he had left no son. In a male-oriented society, who would lead the community of the faithful?
Shortly after Muhammad's death, some of his closest followers chose Abu Bakr (uh-BOOBA-kuhr), a wealthy merchant and Muhammad's father-in-law, to be their leader. He was name caliph (KAY-luhf), or successor to Muhammad. As Muhammad's successors, the caliphs had to follow the prophet's example. This meant ruling according to the Qur'an. Unlike Muhammad, however, early caliphs were not religious leaders.
|
Four Rightly-Guided Caliphs
|
Beginnings of an Empire
Abu Bakr directed a series of battles against Arab tribes who did not follow Muhammad's teachings. By his death in 634, he had made Arabia a unified Muslim state.
With Arabia united, Muslim leaders turned their attention elsewhere. Their armies, strong after their battles in Arabia, won many stunning victories. They defeated the Persian and Byzantine empires, which were weak from years of fighting.
Abu Bakr directed a series of battles against Arab tribes who did not follow Muhammad's teachings. By his death in 634, he had made Arabia a unified Muslim state.
With Arabia united, Muslim leaders turned their attention elsewhere. Their armies, strong after their battles in Arabia, won many stunning victories. They defeated the Persian and Byzantine empires, which were weak from years of fighting.
When the Muslims conquered lands, they made treaties with any non-Muslims there. These treaties listed rules that conquered people—often Jews and Christians-- had to follow. For example, some non-Muslims could not build places of worship in Muslim cities or dress like Muslims. In return, the Muslims would not attack them.
One such treaty was the Pact of Umar, named after the second caliph. It was written about 637 after Muslims conquered Syria.
During this period, differences between groups of Muslims solidified into what became the Shia-Sunni split. One prominent incident was the killing of Hussein, grandson of Muhammad and carrier of the hopes of the Shia Muslim branch
One such treaty was the Pact of Umar, named after the second caliph. It was written about 637 after Muslims conquered Syria.
During this period, differences between groups of Muslims solidified into what became the Shia-Sunni split. One prominent incident was the killing of Hussein, grandson of Muhammad and carrier of the hopes of the Shia Muslim branch
A Split in Islam
Early in the Umayyad period a revolt took place in modern-day Iraq. The revolt was led by Hussein (hoo-SAYN), second son of Ali - the son-in-law of Muhammad.
Hussein encouraged his followers to rise up against Umayyad rule in 680. He set off to do battle, but his soldiers defected, leaving him with an army of 72 warriors against 10,000 Umayyad soldiers. Hussein's tiny force fought courageously, but all died.
Hussein encouraged his followers to rise up against Umayyad rule in 680. He set off to do battle, but his soldiers defected, leaving him with an army of 72 warriors against 10,000 Umayyad soldiers. Hussein's tiny force fought courageously, but all died.
This struggle led to a split of Islam into two groups. The Shiite (SHEE-yt) Muslims accept only the descendants of Ali as the true rulers of Islam. The Sunni (SU-nee) Muslims did not all agree with Umayyad rule but accepted the Umayyads as rulers. This political split led to the development of two branches of Mulsims that persists to the present day. the Sunnis are a majority in the Muslim world, but most of the people in Iraq and neighboring Iran consider themselves to be Shiites.
Growth of the Empire
Many early caliphs came from the Umayyad (oorri-EYE-yuhd) family. The Umayyads moved their capital from Medina to Damascus and continued to expand the empire. They took over lands in Central Asia and in northern India. The Umayyads also gained control of trade in the eastern Mediterranean and conquered part of North Africa.
Many early caliphs came from the Umayyad (oorri-EYE-yuhd) family. The Umayyads moved their capital from Medina to Damascus and continued to expand the empire. They took over lands in Central Asia and in northern India. The Umayyads also gained control of trade in the eastern Mediterranean and conquered part of North Africa.
the late 600s, battles with the Berbers slowed the growth of Muslim rule in North Africa. The Berbers are the native people of North Africa. After years of fighting, many Berbers converted to Islam. Following their conversion, they joined the Arabs in their efforts to spread Islam.
Next the Muslims tried to expand their empire into Europe. A combined Arab and Berber army invaded Spain in 711 and quickly conquered it. The army moved on into what is now France, but it was stopped by a Christian army near the city of Tours (TooR). Despite this defeat, Muslims called Moors continued to rule parts of Spain for the next 700 years. |
In continuing the expansion, a new dynasty, the Abbasids (uh-BAS-idz), came to power in 750. The Abbasids reorganized the government to make it easier to rule such a large region.
The Abbasid Dynasty
Resentment against Umayyad rule grew. As mentioned, non-Arab Muslims resented favoritism shown to Arabs. The Umayyads also helped bring about their own end by their corrupt behavior. In 750, Abu al-Abbas, a descendant of Muhammad's uncle, overthrew the Umayyad dynasty and set up the Abbasid dynasty, which lasted until 1258.
In 762, the Abbasids built a new capital city at Baghdad, on the Tigris River, far to the east of the Umayyad capital at Damascus. The new capital was well placed. It took advantage of river traffic to the Persian Gulf and was located on the caravan route from the Mediterranean to central Asia.
The move eastward increased Persian influence and encouraged a new cultural outlook. Under the Umayyads, warriors had been seen as the ideal citizens. Under the Abbasids, judges, merchants, and government officials were the new heroes. All Muslims, regardless of ethnic background, could now hold both civil and military offices. Many Arabs began to intermarry with conquered peoples.
Resentment against Umayyad rule grew. As mentioned, non-Arab Muslims resented favoritism shown to Arabs. The Umayyads also helped bring about their own end by their corrupt behavior. In 750, Abu al-Abbas, a descendant of Muhammad's uncle, overthrew the Umayyad dynasty and set up the Abbasid dynasty, which lasted until 1258.
In 762, the Abbasids built a new capital city at Baghdad, on the Tigris River, far to the east of the Umayyad capital at Damascus. The new capital was well placed. It took advantage of river traffic to the Persian Gulf and was located on the caravan route from the Mediterranean to central Asia.
The move eastward increased Persian influence and encouraged a new cultural outlook. Under the Umayyads, warriors had been seen as the ideal citizens. Under the Abbasids, judges, merchants, and government officials were the new heroes. All Muslims, regardless of ethnic background, could now hold both civil and military offices. Many Arabs began to intermarry with conquered peoples.
This was also a period of growing prosperity. The Arabs had conquered many of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire, and they now controlled the trade routes to the East. Baghdad became the center of an enormous trade empire that extended into Asia, Africa, and Europe, greatly adding to the riches of the Islamic world.
Merchants and the Spread of Islam
Along with their trade goods, Arab merchants took Islamic beliefs to new lands. For example, merchants introduced Islam into India. Although many Indian kingdoms remained Hindu, coastal trading cities soon had large Muslim communities. In Africa, societies often had both African and Muslim customs. For example, Arabic influenced local African languages. Also, many African leaders converted to Islam.
Between 1200 and 1600, Muslim traders carried Islam as far east as what are now Malaysia and Indonesia. Even today, Islam is a major influence on life there.
Along with their trade goods, Arab merchants took Islamic beliefs to new lands. For example, merchants introduced Islam into India. Although many Indian kingdoms remained Hindu, coastal trading cities soon had large Muslim communities. In Africa, societies often had both African and Muslim customs. For example, Arabic influenced local African languages. Also, many African leaders converted to Islam.
Between 1200 and 1600, Muslim traders carried Islam as far east as what are now Malaysia and Indonesia. Even today, Islam is a major influence on life there.
In addition to helping spread Islam, trade brought new products to Muslim lands and made many people rich. First, new products and inventions created by other peoples made their way to the Muslim world. For example, Arabs learned from the Chinese how to make paper and use gunpowder. New crops such as cotton, rice, and oranges arrived from India, China, and Southeast Asia. Second, traders made money on trade between regions.
In addition to trade with Asia, African trade was important to Muslim merchants. Many merchants set up businesses next to African market towns. They wanted African products such as ivory, cloves, and slaves. In return they offered fine white pottery called porcelain from China, cloth goods from India, and iron from Southwest Asia and Europe. Arab traders even traveled south across the Sahara, the world's largest desert, to get gold. In exchange, they brought the Africans salt, which was scarce south of the desert.
A Mix of Cultures
As Islam spread through trade, warfare, and treaties, Arabs came in contact with people who had different beliefs and lifestyles than they did. Muslims generally practiced religious tolerance, or acceptance, with regard to people they conquered. In other words, the Muslims did not ban all religions other than Islam in their lands. Jews and Christians in particular kept many of their rights, since they shared some beliefs with Muslims.
Although Jews and Christians were allowed to practice their own religions, they had to pay a special tax. They also had to follow the rules of the treaties governing conquered peoples.
As Islam spread through trade, warfare, and treaties, Arabs came in contact with people who had different beliefs and lifestyles than they did. Muslims generally practiced religious tolerance, or acceptance, with regard to people they conquered. In other words, the Muslims did not ban all religions other than Islam in their lands. Jews and Christians in particular kept many of their rights, since they shared some beliefs with Muslims.
Although Jews and Christians were allowed to practice their own religions, they had to pay a special tax. They also had to follow the rules of the treaties governing conquered peoples.
Many people conquered by the Arabs converted to Islam. Along with Islamic beliefs, these people often adopted other parts of Arabic culture. For example, many people started speaking Arabic. The Arabs also adopted some of the customs of the people they conquered. For example, they copied a Persian form of bureaucracy in their government.
As Islam spread, language and religion helped unify the many groups that became part of the Islamic world. Cultural blending changed Islam from a mostly Arab religion into a religion of many different cultures.
The Growth of Cities
In growing cities of the Muslim world reflected this blending of cultures. Trade had brought people, products, and ideas together. It had also created wealth, which supported great cultural development in cities such as Baghdad in what is now Iraq and Cordoba (KAwR-doh-bah) in Spain.
In growing cities of the Muslim world reflected this blending of cultures. Trade had brought people, products, and ideas together. It had also created wealth, which supported great cultural development in cities such as Baghdad in what is now Iraq and Cordoba (KAwR-doh-bah) in Spain.
Baghdad
Baghdad became the capital of the Islamic Empire in 762. Located near both land and water routes, it was a major trading center. In addition to trade, farming contributed to a strong economy. Dates and grains grew well in the fertile soil. Trade and farming made Baghdad one of the world's richest cities in the late 700s and early 800s. The center of Baghdad was known as the round city, because three round walls surrounded it. Within the walls was the caliph's palace, which took up one-third of the city. Outside the walls were houses and souks for the city's huge population. Caliphs at Baghdad supported science and the arts. For example, they built a hospital and an observatory. They also built a library that was used as a university and housed Arabic translations of many ancient Greek works. Because Baghdad was a center of culture and learning, many artists and writers went there. Artists decorated the city's public buildings, while writers wrote literature that remains popular today. |
Cordoba
Cordoba, too, became a great Muslim city. In 756 Muslims chose it to be the capital of what is now Spain. Like Baghdad, Cordoba had a strong economy based on agriculture and trade. Cordoba exported textiles and jewelry, which were valued throughout Europe. By the early 900s Cordoba was the largest and most advanced city in Europe. It had mansions and mosques, busy markets and shops, and aqueducts. It also had public water and lighting systems. Cordoba was a great center of learning. Men and women from across the Muslim world and Europe came to study at the university there. They studied Greek and Roman scientific writings and translated them into Arabic. In addition, they studied writings produced in the Muslim world and translated them from Arabic to Latin. As a result, Arabic writings on such subjects as mathematics, medicine, astronomy, geography, and history could be studied throughout Europe. |
How did the Arab Empire Succeed?
During the early eighth century, the Muslims vastly extended their empire. Their swift conquest of Southwest Asia has intrigued many historians. Was their success due to religious fervor or military strength; or, were there other reasons for their military victories that are not so obvious?
During the early eighth century, the Muslims vastly extended their empire. Their swift conquest of Southwest Asia has intrigued many historians. Was their success due to religious fervor or military strength; or, were there other reasons for their military victories that are not so obvious?
"They were aided by the weakness of the two contemporary empires, the Sassanian (Persian) and the Byzantine, which had largely exhausted themselves by their wars on one another... Nor were these Arabs simply zealots fired by the ideal of Holy War. They were by long tradition tough fighters, accustomed to raiding out of hunger and want; many or perhaps even most of them were not ardent followers of Muhammad. Yet there can be little question that what got the Arabs started, and kept them going was mainly the personality and the teaching of the Prophet."
- Herbert J. Miller, 1958, The Loom of History |
"Perhaps... another kind of explanation can be given for the acceptance of Arab rule by the population of the conquered countries. To most of them it did not much matter whether they were ruled by Iranians, Greeks or Arabs. Government impinged for the most part on the life of cities and... city-dwellers might not care much who ruled them, provided they were secure, at peace and reasonably taxed. The people of the countryside... lived under their own chiefs and ... with their own customs, and it made little difference to them who ruled the cities. For some, the replacement of Greeks and Iranians by Arabs even offered advantages."
- Albert Hourani, 1991, A History of the Arab Peoples |
Questions:
1. Why can both viewpoints be considered valid?
2. What aspects of Islamic believe would make accepting outside rule possible for those conquered by the Islamic Empires?
1. Why can both viewpoints be considered valid?
2. What aspects of Islamic believe would make accepting outside rule possible for those conquered by the Islamic Empires?